Prostitution in 18th Century England Essay example -- European History

Prostitution in 18th Century England "Miss B____rn. No. l 8 Old Compton Street, Soho Close in the arms she languishingly lies With dying looks, short breath, and wishing eyes. This accomplished nymph has just attained her eighteenth year, and fraught with every perfection, enters a volunteer in the field of Venus. She plays on the pianofort, sings, dances, and is mistress of every Maneuver in the amorous contest that can enhance the coming pleasure; is of the middle stature, fine auburn hair, dark eyes and very inviting countenance, which ever seems to beam delight and love. In bed she is all the heart can wish, or eyes admires every limb is symmetry, every action under cover truly amorous; her price two pounds." (Maccubbin 63) The above is an excerpt from Harris's List of Covent Garden Ladies, a listing of prostitutes published annually, and primarily aimed at the wealthy, as one might suppose from the rather exorbitant fee charged by the above Miss B___ rn. This particular biography is from the 1788 edition. Not all prostitutes were this expensive though. Some of the more "common" tarts available in London could be had for a shilling or two (Maccubbin). Prostitution, in the eighteenth century, was perhaps as close as it has ever been to being an acceptable livelihood. The crusading, abolishing Puritans had been hushed up, at least a little, and the emphasis shifted to the economic reality of trying, as a woman, to support oneself in the harsh climate of London. London's primary industry was wealthy people (Maccubbin 61), and the best, and sometimes only, way to make money was to entice said wealthy people to spend their money. Being a prostitute was really the most economically viable option. Working as a seamstre... ... up on the subject for this paper, and Goodness gracious, hidden amongst ridiculous numbers of capital letters is some rather graphic stuffy which I, in my naivete? was shocked had been written so far before the 20th century. History is not so prudish as many would have one think. Anyway, my overall point is simply that prostitution was an acceptable, and often recorded way of life in the 18th century, though things got, of course, more restrained as the century wore on and the spectre of Queen Victoria began to loom large and repressed in the age to come. Also, at this time, there was not as much medical data regarding just what venereal diseases could do to someone, and once people began to realize the effects, they began to exercise a little restraint. But, for most of the century, the ladies of the evening enjoyed a profitable and almost respectable business.

Outline On The History Of Halloween Essay

SPECIFIC PURPOSE:At the end of my speech, my audience should understand three important points of the history of Halloween. THESIS STATEMENT:The three most important points of Halloween can be summed up by looking at its origins, how it came to include jack-o-lanterns and bobbing  for apples, and how it is celebrated today in the 21st century with  trick-or-treating and haunted houses. When the leaves start turning different colors and falling off the trees, when the temperature starts falling and the sun starts setting a little earlier each day, it makes me think of Halloween. Most people think all Halloween is about is dressing up and going trick or treating. It didn’t start out as a going door-to-door and getting candy event every October 31st. In fact, Halloween originated as a Celtic festival more than 2000 years ago. When I was a kid, Halloween was my favorite time of the year. It wasn’t even because of all the candy and the dressing up, but for the overall atmosphere of it. I have always loved all things scary and fall has always been my favorite season so naturally every year I look forward to the end of October every year. The three most important points of Halloween can be summed up by looking at its origins, how it came to include jack-o-lanterns and bobbing for apples, and how it is celebrated today in the 21st century with trick-or-treating and haunted houses. I.Beginning somewhere around 800 BC, The Celts celebrated â€Å"Samhain†(pronounced â€Å"sow-in†), according to the book entitled â€Å"The Celts† by Nora Chadwick. A. Samhain is a festival to recognize the end of summer. 1. The Celtic celebrated Samhain near the end of our month of  October, which was the end of the year for them. 2. It often involved a big feast because it was the end of harvest also. B. The Celts believed that the veil between this world and the next was thinnest at this time of year. 1. Friends and relatives who had died would often return, with their souls inhabiting an animal – often a black cat. 2. Black Cats have remained a symbol of Halloween even today. C. In celebration of the recently completed harvest, Celts would give offerings of food to the Gods. 1. They often went from door to door to collect food to donate to their deities. 2. Also, young Celts would ask the townspeople for kindling and wood, and take it to top of  the hill for the Samhain bonfire. 3. These are the two possible origins of the modern â€Å"trick or treating† ritual. 1. Sacred bonfires were lit on the tops of hills in honor of the Gods. 2. The townspeople would take an ember from the bonfire to their home and re-light the  fire in their family hearth. 3. The ember would usually be carried in a holder, usually a turnip or gourd. E. The Celts felt nervous about walking home in the dark on account of the evil spirits. 1. They dressed up in costumes and carved scary faces in their ember holders. 2. They hoped that the spirits would be frightened and not bother them. 3. This is why we carve pumpkins and children dress up for Halloween. II. For the next eight centuries, the activities going on at the end of October began to change. A. According to website â€Å"The Origins and History of Halloween† 1. Jack was mischievous Irishman that had tricked the Devil into climbing an apple tree. 2. He then cut a cross symbol in the tree trunk, thus trapping the Devil in the branches. 3. At his death, he was unable to again access to Heaven because of his meanness and the  Devil would not allow him into Hell because of the apple tree incident. 4. He was forced to walk the earth endlessly but the devil took pity on him and gave him a piece of coal to light his path. 5. Jack put the coal inside a hollowed-out turnip that he had been eating. 6. This is the reason we light â€Å"jack-o-lantern† pumpkins on Halloween night. B. Apples were considered have long been associated with female deities, and with immortality,  resurrection, and knowledge. 1. One reason is that if an apple is cut through its equator, it will reveal a five-pointed star   outlined at the center of each hemisphere. 2. This was a pentagram — a Goddess symbol among the Gypsies, Celts, Egyptians, 3. Unmarried people would attempt to take a bite out of an apple bobbing in a pail of water, or  suspended on a string. 4. The first person to do so was believed to be the next to marry. 5. This is where the ritual of â€Å"bobbing for apples† originated. C. All Saints’ Day was a holiday to recognize the saints who were without their own day, and to  celebrate saints that the Church had failed to recognize. 1. It originally was held on May 13, but was moved to November 1, possibly to distract  Christians from celebrating Samhain. 2. Halloween was originally called All Hallows’ Eve which means the evening before All  Saints’ Day. 3. â€Å"Hallow† is an Old English word for â€Å"saint† III.Starting in the 20th century through present day, Halloween has become a major folk holiday in A. Trick–or-Treater’s go from door to door and collect candies, apples and other treats. 1. Halloween is the holiday when the most candy is sold. 2. It is second only to Christmas in total sales of any holiday. B. Scares and spookiness are a big part of Halloween. 1. Local community organizations put on fundraising events like haunted hayrides, scary  walks through the woods, etc. to raise money for their programs. 2. Privately-owned organizations take old houses or abandoned buildings, throw in a few  scary monsters here and there to create a haunted house. C. Hell or Judgment houses are a relatively new concept created by conservative Christian sects. 1. The earliest hell house appears to have been created by Rev. Jerry Falwell in the late  1970’s, according to the â€Å"Halloween Spooking, Christian Style,† American Atheists  news release, 2001-OCT-27. 2. A Hell House consists of a group of horrific presentations within a type of haunted  house where a customer walks through a sequence of scenes designed to create terror  and revulsion. 3. The intent is to convert the unsaved public  to Christianity and to promote certain  conservative Christian beliefs like the wrongs of abortion, homosexuality, and sex  before marriage. 4. The last scene is different, typically a portrayal of heaven where visitors are then asked  to accept salvation by repenting of their sins and accepting Jesus as Lord and Savior. Having seen how Halloween in modern times has evolved from its humble beginnings as an end of the growing season celebration, it is interesting to see how much festivities centered around the 31st of October have changed over the last 2000 years. It has gone from an end-of-year festival around 800 BC to a time when kids go door-to-door around their neighborhoods dressed up like their favorite cartoon characters. Halloween is just a fun day for everybody. It can bring out the kid in all of us.

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The Comic Books And Propaganda - 1855 Words

Comic Books and Propaganda Since the times of the Persian Empires, propaganda has been an effective tool for forces of the State government, or other institutions trying to spread a political message, usually for militarily or humanitarian missions. In modern times, propaganda has taken a new face with the Internet, but during the 1940’s one of the most effective types of propaganda was the use of comic books. Currently comic books are used around the world to spread the message of peace, war, and even religion. For example, in Egypt a comic book is used to spread the word of Islam and what a true Muslim should act like in accordance to Allah. Catholic undertones are used in comic books to spread a message of Christianity to people in an interesting way, with bloody action. In Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War, Superman was used to get out awareness of landmines to the people in affected areas. Comic Books are an effective form of propaganda because they are meant to be interesting, and the superheroes show people how they should be acting during times of strife. Throughout the history of comic books, they have been unifying and brought people together and light to certain messages for people from different countries, cultures, and ethnicities. Propaganda has been used for thousands of years, for example, during the time of the Persian Empire, Darius’s, also known as Darius the Great a king of the Persian Empire, use of an inscription demonstrated his rise toShow MoreRelatedThe Cold War Between The United States Of America And The Soviet Union1501 Words   |  7 Pagespieces of propaganda and articles written during the time had largely impacted American popular opinion and had powerful effects on the culture among young men and women of the 1940’s and 1950’s. â€Å"The Red Iceberg† comic book cover, published and presented during the Cold War era, was one use of media that perpetuated the negative effects of Soviet Union political influence while promoting the righteousness of the United States. The visual rhetoric presented in â€Å"The Red Iceberg† propaganda, and othersRead MoreEssay on Formal Analysis of Iconic Images: Wonder Woman 1515 Words   |  7 Pagescostume of a famous hero ine. 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Two of the sources used in this essay Freedom Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War Two by Arthur Herman and World War II in Europe by World Book: Chicago are evaluated and used in this essay. â€Æ' Summary of Evidence Propaganda Posters †¢ â€Å"Roosevelt thought that propaganda should tell the American people the truth and popular culture was seen to be inherently democratic as it was produced ‘by the people for the people’.† (Murray 142) †¢ â€Å"Women were also warnedRead MoreCultural Mirror And Hidden Intent1207 Words   |  5 Pages Comics : Cultural Mirror and Hidden Intent Cul ¬tural texts are objects, actions, and behav ¬iors that reveal cul ¬tural mean ¬ings. An entire space, peo ¬ple and their inter ¬ac ¬tions, the rit ¬u ¬als, norms and the var ¬i ¬ous forms in which they man ¬i ¬fest are â€Å"read ¬able† texts, suit ¬able for obser ¬va ¬tion and analy ¬sis. Especially when talking about culture and what is signified. One such example for cultural text are graphical novels called comic books. From time and again it is seen that comic booksRead MoreBatman as a Cultural Artefact1104 Words   |  4 Pagesthe superhero genre in general (from comic book to television to film and back again) has seen in the latest adaptation from Christopher Nolans Batman revamp a veritable tilting point for the character once known as the Worlds Greatest Detective. This paper will analyze why Batman is an important cultural artifact of our day, how he came into being, what he means for society, and how he will be treated in t he future. Batman originally began as a DC Comics detective a superhero quite different

Animal Testing Should Stop Essay - 1958 Words

ANIMAL TESTING INTRODUCTION Animals have been used in scientific experiments for a long time to be able to understand and define how human body works and to cure certain diseases. However, most of the people are in disagreement to use animals in scientific experiments. They suggest using humans as test subjects with the drug trials. The first reason why humans should be used for drugs trials is that animals are living creatures that have rights to reject although they cannot speak in the human language. Moreover, they suffer and there are even people who try to animate their feelings by crying and trying to be like animals. Since people choose to and to be volunteered to be experimented on, it is not ethical to use animals instead. The†¦show more content†¦LITERATURE REVIEW In today’s world, people always try to have the best, and this makes safety an important issue. Both medical and non-medical products need to be approved in terms of safety before it is put on the market (Galson, 2005). That’s why products such as cosmetics and drugs need to be tested on animals. However, researchers showed that there are many physiological differences between animals and human beings (â€Å"The Pharmaceutical Racket,† n.d.). For example, sweet almond which is healthy for human beings is deadly for foxes, and drugs which have the label of safety such as Pronap Plaxin, which is a tranquilizer, killed many babies (â€Å"The Pharmaceutical Racket,† n.d.). Due to these false results, it is being questioned that what the drawbacks of using animal on scientific experiments are. Vivisection can be called as the process where animals are tortured in the labs for the good of humankind (â€Å"Question Vivisection,† n.d.). Is it not ridiculous that humans who are fighting for freedom keep holding animals in the cages? According to NEAVS, which is the acronym for New England Anti-Vivisection Society, over 25 millions of animals are used in biomedical experimentation, product and cosmetic testing, and science education every year in the United States of America (â€Å"Harm and Suffering,† n.d.). For the sake of research and testing, animals are exposed to some experiments such asShow MoreRelatedAnimal Testing Should Stop Testing Their Products On Animals1722 Words   |  7 Pageshistory, animal experimentation has played a significant important role in leading to new discoveries and human benefit. However, what many people tend to forget are the numbers of animal subjects that have suffered serious harm during the process of experimentation. Each d ay across America innocent animals are used as test subjects for products that have little to no relevance importance. Animal testing has had many negative issues arise in society in a negative way. Debating over the animal rightsRead More Animal Testing Needs To Stop Essay990 Words   |  4 Pagescompanies should stop animal testing. By animal testing, the companies not only violate the animals rights (which is breaking the law), but their testing methods are hazardous which endanger the animals life. Finally, the companies should stop animal testing because each year we lose hundreds of thousands of animals and could make a difference by stopping this cruelty. Stop the animal testing, and save a life. To start with, cosmetic and drug companies should stop animal testing theirRead MoreAnimal Testing Proposal Essay1549 Words   |  7 PagesMillions of animals are being unneedlessly tested on for cosmetics, even though there are plenty of alternatives available and most of the results are unreliable or not applicable to humans. Although the fight against animal testing has made huge progress recently, America has yet to stop this cruel practice and chooses to torture animals while other countries are making a stop to the testing (â€Å"Animal Testing 101†). Right now, millions of mice, rats, rabbits, primates, cats, dogs, and other animals are lockedRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1721 Words   |  7 Pages † Today, more animals are being used in experiments than ever before: around 100 million in the United States alone† (3). Animal testing is now an international issue, and it is becoming a major story. Currently, animals are often used in medical testing, make-up testing, and other consumer product testing. Animals used in such product testing are often abused and suffer from serious side-effects. Animal testing can be painful for the animals, testing results are usually not even useable forRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned878 Words   |  4 PagesJaden Kazmierczak Mrs. Kaiser English 11 29 May 2015 Animal Testing You are one of the 26 million each year chosen to suffer from testing and in laboratories. You are one of the fifty chosen just for that certain test. You are and the other 26 million are not the lucky ones. That 26 million are being murder in laboratories every year (Should Animals†¦ Testing? 1). Innocent animals are being brutally killed to serve humans through animal testing for cosmetic products when this brutality could be stoppedRead MoreAnimal Testing And The Scientific Field1305 Words   |  6 Pagesscientific field, people find that the richest discoveries in health or medicine generally depend on animal testing. According to Animal Testing in the History of Anesthesia: Now and Then, Some Stories, Some Facts, the writer says, â€Å"There are many interesting anecdotes, [†¦] about how dogs have been loved, named and tested by many anesthesiologists, [†¦]. However, the contribution of experiments on animals such as rabbit, monkey, mice, guinea pigs etc., also played a significant role in the evolutionRead MoreShould Animal Testing Be Banned?844 Words   |  3 PagesShould animal testing be banned? Nowadays, a lot of animals has been tested on a range of experiments over the world. You could be supporting animal teasing cruelty without knowing it. Have you ever check if there’s animal testing on the cosmetics before you buy it? Today, a lot of cosmetics has been testing on helpless animals and there are about 1.4 million animals die each year from animal testing ( CatalanoJ, 1994). Most of the experiments that are completed in the laboratories are very cruelRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned847 Words   |  4 PagesOne of the biggest areas on where people gather around and protest is when they’re fighting agents animals testing. As well as the years has pasted on protesting on animals, it became more sires in increased in the 1960’s and 1970’s. Many cosmetics companies been testing on animals throughout the years there is also many that have not. The cosmetics line LUSH has been fighting over animals testing for over thirty years and will cont inue to fight for their right according to the company. When LUSHRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Animal Testing1502 Words   |  7 Pagesthat animal testing is beneficial to the advancement of human knowledge, while animal rights’ activists claim that animal testing is not humane and violates animals’ rights. The controversy over animal testing is best understood as a disagreement about whether animal testing is beneficial to humans. Each year more than 100 million animals are killed in the U.S. Every country has a law that permits medical experimentation on animals. While some countries protect particular kinds of animals fromRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned Essay537 Words   |  3 Pagesmillions of animals are used to test how safe and effective products, such as cosmetics, are. They are genetically modified, force-fed harmful chemicals, blinded, scalded, and maimed. How could one not object to this awful cruelty? Animal testing should be banned because i t is cruel, unnecessary, inaccurate, and expensive. The very first reason why animal testing should be banned is elementary: it is cruel and unnecessary. Approximately 17-22 million animals are used for testing each year in

A Pair Of Silk Stockings Essay Example For Students

A Pair Of Silk Stockings Essay Kate Chopin again writes another short story with a way of getting the attention of the reader in a short period of time. A Pair of Silk Stockings is based in early to mid 1900s in a average town. Shops, a theater and such lies in the center of town. The author tells of a widowed mother that is not so well off, that discovers a sum of money and is taken away in her own shopping spree and perhaps her own dreams. Mrs. Sommers is a middle aged timid mother of a handful of children, and is apparently not well to do anymore after her husbands death; Not that she probably ever was, but more so than her luck would have it now. She is small framed with tattered old clothes, as if she hasnt been able to purchase anything in quite awhile, nor would she knowing how much she puts her childrens needs in front of her own. She is a very thoughtful and caring mother who always puts the childrens needs ahead of her own. Her children is the only thing that has consumed her mind in several years until the unexpected sum of cash shows up. Even before Mrs. Mallard starts upon her shopping spree, she prioritizes what to buy in her mind for her children, a dollar(321). She knows exactly what to buy and how much to spend on each since she knows the value of a bargain.During her spree, she is lost in her own world and purchases items for herself instead of her children. Her purchases included a new pair of silk stockings, fitted gloves, new boots and two high priced magazines. Next, she is drawn to a restaurant that she has only dreamily strolled by admiring everything about it, only to go inside for a quick bite, which is typically out of the question for her. After her snack, she attends a play with other well to do women who are only there to kill time, eat candy and display their gaudy attire. She now, stands waiting for a cable car hoping that her dream will never come to an end. Almost lost in the mom ent, she stares at the man sitting opposite her on the cable car hoping that this ride would never end. Quite possibly, she was thinking of how life would be with the stranger who sat across from her. She relived the years that have all but passed her. Eventually, Mrs. Sommers trip does end but with no regrets. She has finally pampered herself and lived the life of the women that she has only admired to this point. There were no worries burdened upon her during this time, and she felt like a new woman again, shopping for herself and not thinking about everything else, as usual.

The Ethics of Abortion Utilitarianism, Buddhism Kant. Essay Example

The Ethics of Abortion: Utilitarianism, Buddhism Kant. Paper Examine how different ethical theories/religious viewpoints approach the issue of abortion. To what extent do you think they are successful in resolving the controversies? Abortion is a very controversial subject in todays society, and although it is now legal in most Western countries, there are as many viewpoints and arguments opposing abortion as there are in favour of it. Many questions must be asked when contemplating abortion; When does a human life begin? At what point is the foetus morally equal to us? nd Does the mother have the right to choose to end the life of her unborn child? re a few of the major issues which arise. Contrary to Utilitarianism, Buddhism has a very clear view on when life begins: conception. Like Kant, Buddhists believe that life is sacred and have a very positive view of human beings. However Buddhism extends this idea, believing that every living creature has Tathagatha-Garba (perfection in embryonic form), suggesting that every living being has the po tential to reach a perfect state and ultimately become a Buddha. Therefore even if you have an early abortion, it is still destroying the potential for something perfect, which is not acceptable. Buddhists have come to the conclusion that life begins at conception, as they teach that one incarnates in the mother at the moment of conception, meaning that destroying an embryo is equal to murder. Buddhism would say that the mother does not have the right to destroy the Tathagartha-Garba as it is a completely different entity, it is simply living inside her body for the time being, not an actual part of the mothers body over which she has control. We will write a custom essay sample on The Ethics of Abortion: Utilitarianism, Buddhism Kant. specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Ethics of Abortion: Utilitarianism, Buddhism Kant. specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Ethics of Abortion: Utilitarianism, Buddhism Kant. specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer A main principle in Buddhism is that of the Tri-Pitaka (three baskets), it is the first of these baskets Vinaya-Pitaka which concerns the issue of abortion as it eals with laws governing moral life for example Pratimoksha, which represents the way to freedom, and consists of Five Primary Precepts. One of these precepts is I undertake the training principle of refraining from harming living beings, rendering abortion immoral and linking to the Buddhist idea that mental attitude is very important. They believe that one must have a calm mind in death in order to enter the next life in a high realm; harming the tathagartha-garba before its born will undoubtedly cause it severe mental trauma and so causing it to be reincarnated in a ower realm, enforcing the belief that the mother does not have the right to abort a child, as this would inflict pain and the unfortunate consequences upon an innocent being. The Bardo-Thodol (Tibetan Book of the Dead) gives a very accurate and descriptive insight into what happens between two lives from death to reincarnation. It teaches how we can attain Nirvana by recognizing the heavenly realms instead of entering into the lower realms where the cycle of birth and rebirth continue. A main principle in the Buddhist religion is Karma they believe that etween lives you meet Lord Yama, who holds up a mirror in which you see all of your past deeds which are then measured on a balance to determine where you go in your next life. Each negative deed adds a black stone to the balance, and every positive deed, a white. Your karma acts as a magnet drawing you to future rebirth and you are reincarnated in a certain realm, according to how the balance is tipped, if there are more white than black stones you will enter a high realm and vice versa. By having an abortion you are disregarding the sacred value of life and so are likely o be reborn in a low, hell realm. Buddhist belief is that abortion is intrinsically wrong as it contradicts all of their key teachings. Kant, like the Buddhists, has an absolutist view on ethics and again, as in Buddhism, believes that abortion is always wrong. His view is very unique; he believes that Just as the universe is underpinned by laws of nature, human behaviour is controlled by a moral law. He teaches that in order to work out these moral laws you must use a kind of ethical mathematics, synthetic a prior. The mathematic principle of Kantian ethics is known as the Principle of Universalisability, basically when making a moral decision you must imagine the outcome if everyone in the world did the same thing. One of Kants examples was lying what would happen if everybody lied? Well, the world would become a very corrupt place and it would be impossible to distinguish right from wrong, therefore it is wrong to lie. If we apply this principle to abortion it is logically impossible, that is to say if everyone had an abortion there would be nobody left to get pregnant and have an abortion and the human race would ultimately die out, furthermore it isnt actually ossible for every human in the world to have an abortion as men and infertile women are unable to become pregnant in the first place. So according to the Principle of Universalisability, abortion is intrinsically wrong. Kants second principle states that as humans we must treat others as ends not means, in other words we should not use people for our own benefit, instead we should use actions in order to benefit other people. For example, a pimp uses prostitutes in order to gain wealth, to Kant this behaviour is intrinsically wrong as it is involves using others for personal gain. This principle verifies that Kant would be against abortion as people would be using the foetus so as to reduce their own suffering. The third of Kants principles is known as The Kingdom of Ends. He makes it clear that you should act as though everyone is following the moral law, that is to say, you should not change your moral behaviour because other people do. His Justification is that things will fall apart if you take this attitude. A final important point to consider when studying Kant is that he does not believe emotions, feelings or circumstances should affect the decisions you ake, this is due to his belief that there is a rational order undergirding the world. Disobeying a moral law is equivalent to disobeying a physical law: you cant, no matter how you feel about gravity it still acts, and in Kants view, moral law is no different. Kants theory is worthy for consideration as it is Just, it has a positive view of human life and as humans we intuitively agree with much of what he says. On the other hand however, his theories are perhaps too rigid and unemotional, and it is possible for moral laws to contradict each other, for example one moral law is that ou cannot lie, and another states that you cannot hurt people, but sometimes the truth hurts. Unlike Buddhism and Kant, Utilitarianism is a relativist theory and states that nothing is intrinsically right or wrong. Basically, it is a consequentialist theory which Judges the consequences of our actions rather than the actions themselves, meaning that unlike the others it does not say that abortion is always morally wrong. Utiliatrianism considers each individual circumstance separately, coming to reasonable conclusions which suit the particular circumstance. In this respect it can e very useful, for example in cases of incest and rape where the mother feels she could not bear to go through with the pregnancy, utilitarianism would Justify an abortion on the grounds that the mothers wellbeing is of utmost importance. This theory would sympathise with the mother, believing that preventing the emotional trauma from which she would suffer is more important than the rapist/family members child, as it is not an actual human being yet and so cannot feel happy, which is the basis of utilitarianism. Unlike Kant, utilitarianism takes into account the houghts and feelings of people involved, to produce the outcome that will bring the greatest happiness. For this reason, it does not forbid abortion as in some cases the abortion is likely to have a better outcome than the birth of the child. For example, when a couple discovers their child is to be born disabled, many choose to have it aborted for the benefit of both themselves and the baby. If the baby was to be born, it would likely struggle through life and would not have the quality of life that many people believe a child deserves, also it is often the case that the parents cannot fford to give the child the help and support it needs, as this requires a full time commitment. Utilitarianism would Justify the abortion of the child in situations such as these as it is likely that the child would suffer, which is, needless to say, unfair. A popular utilitarian principle is Jeremy Benthams Principle of Pleasure he argues that all human actions and decisions are governed by the desire to gain pleasure and escape pain. Abortion is perhaps difficult to apply to this principle, as on one hand it may bring the mother pleasure to have the abortion, but in many cases the pain of he child overrides this, suggesting that an abortion would be wrong. Therefore, as with all of utilitarianism, it is largely down to human Judgement, meaning it is subjective and so could easily be seen by many as wrong. In this respect, Buddhism is arguably a better theory when it comes to abortion as there is no uncertainty. There are two main branches of utilitarianism act and rule. When contemplating abortion, most would argue that Rule Utilitarianism is a more useful guide as, unlike Act, it does not base the verdict on every single individual case, instead it forms a set f rules which aim to please the greatest number of people. For example the rules for abortion would be something along the lines that abortion is wrong except in cases of rape, incest, disability etc. he final form of utilitarianism is known as Preference Utilitarianism, aptly named it is based upon the preference of those involved. In terms of abortion especially, this is a very weak way to consider it, as often people do not know what they would prefer and even when they do, they may wish to have the abortion out of ease or a similar reason, which would be unfair on the baby and enerally frowned upon. A notorious example of this type of utilitarianism is Peter Singers example that a mature chimpanzee has greater self-consciousness than a newborn infant and therefore has a more legitimate right to life; this statement would of course be used in favour of abortion, a very controversial view. The most useful ethical theory concerning abortion is in my opinion, Buddhism. The Buddhists approach to the issue is the most complex and reasoned, although it believes that abortion is intrinsically wrong and forbids it in all cases which is an issue for many eople, it is the most valid argument. Their belief in the Tathagatha-Garba means that to them there is no situation in which abortion would be Justifiable, as no matter the circumstance, the Tathagatha-Garba is always being destroyed which is an evil act. Kants theory is not as compelling as that of the Buddhists as despite it being along similar lines, his Priniciple of Universalisability seems much more trivial than the idea of the Tathagatha-Garba, as it is unrealistic and though it is a relatively strong argument, to me the Buddhist approach is much more persuasive as it deals ith a very real possibility. To me, Utilitarianism on the whole is a very fickle theory, but particularly when applied to abortion it does not give strong enough Justifications for such a crucial issue. Abortion is a matter of life and death and the subjective conclusions that are drawn by utilitarianism are not substantiated enough to provide a reason to make a decision either way, as conclusions could easily be made either in favour of or against the abortion. For this reason I dont consider it to be a valid theory to apply to such challenging moral issues as abortion.